China And The High Asian Economies - 3127 Words

Since the 1960s, Asia has become richer quicker than any other region across the world. China and the High Performing Asian Economies (HPAE) have been the fastest growing economies ever, demonstrating phenomenal economic growth in the years between 1965 and 1990. Compared to large parts of Asia Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, the HPAE’s have been highly successful at achieving high growth rates. Most of this success can be attributed to the staggering growth in Japan, the four tigers including Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan as well as the NIE’s of Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Controversial issues have been raised in relation to the affiliation between the government, the private sector and the market. As a consequence of the coexistence of public policies and rapid growth in some of the HPAEs particularly Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Singapore. Moreover government intervention within these economies has been a necessity to promote development. Policy interventions, according to the World Bank report came in various forms, targeted and subsidized credit to selected industries, low deposit rates, protection of domestic import substitutions, subsidies to declining industries, the establishment and financial support of government banks, development of export-marketing institutions and the sharing of information between public and private sectors. As a result, one can question whether any of the above interventions is actually aShow MoreRelatedAsian Business Environment1002 Words   |  5 PagesEFA – Asian Business Environment – Dr. Yang Laike (lkyang@bs.ecnu.edu.cn) 17/04/2012: Session 1 Course description Why Asia? * The most dynamic and fastest growing region in the world * Most distinctive cultures and business †¦ Course Objectives? †¦ Learning modules China- India – Japan - Korea (major economic countries) M1 Asian Business Culture M2 Economic structure amp; development in Asia M3 political system and its impact on business M4 The business law and taxationRead MoreAsian Tigers Essay1057 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ It is evident that the global economy has moved on from the Asian Tigers and the present and future of the global economy does in fact lie elsewhere, in particular India and China.   The Asian Tigers are a group of countries which are the first set of NIC s; Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and South Korea. They underwent rapid development in the 1960 s by encouraging TNC s to invest by opening up manufacturing plants by offering cheap labour and less strict pollution laws. TNC s also had the advantageRead MoreAsian Rim Region Report : Geography And Demography1010 Words   |  5 PagesAsia, and Southeast Asia, or Asian Pacific. East Asia can be defined either in geographical and cultural. Geographically, it covers about 12,000,000 km2, or about 28% of the Asian continent, about 15% bigger than the area of Europe. East Asia is one of the world s most populated places, with more than 1.5 billion people, about 38% of the population of Asia and 22% or over one fifth of all the people in the world. There are six main countries in this huge region: China, Japan, South Korea, Hong KongRead MoreThe Reasons Why East Asia Is Successful1365 Words   |  6 PagesThere is no doubt that the economy of East Asia is prospering and does not seem to slow down. The miracles that are happening in many countries in East Asia get attention from economists around the world. Thousands of articles and books try to find an explanation for this spectacular phenomenon. Back in the days, Japan was the only country in Asia that was accepted as a country with a strong and reliable economy. Many experts believe that the flying geese model is one the main reasons why East AsiaRead MoreEast Asia is a diverse region housing some of the largest nations in the world as well as some of1300 Words   |  6 PagesLeipziger, (Leipziger, 3) The East Asian countries have a record of maintaining political and economic stability and of pursuing long-term economic goals. The success of East Asia has led to much scrutiny over the role of the Government contributing towards its success. Although there might be many factors involving the success of East Asia, it is reasonably fair to say that the Government does play a large and critical role in the success of East Asian countries. The nations in East AsiaRead MoreChina And China Case Study1578 Words   |  7 Pagesof Chinese origin, shipped to third countries, are regarded by the US statistics as exports to the US from China. 3) Contrasts in the valuation of direct exchange According to the Joint China-U.S. Investigations of Discrepancies, some of the distinctions in the information on the US imports from the PRC and Chinese fares to the US are explained by the changes in sending out costs from China and import costs in the US for products transported directly from one state to the other. Part of these differencesRead MoreThe 2010s - A lost, instead of blossoming decade for China? Essay1061 Words   |  5 PagesChina’s GDP grew by 9% (www.cia.gov), while all other economies faced severe recessions. For many economists, China is an example for superior economic growth despite state-controlled industries and only limited opening of the market. But recently the number of critics has been increasing and there is much evidence in favour of them. China will face a great economic crisis, if it does not reform soon. The first argument in favour of the thesis that China might be facing an economic crisis in upcomingRead MoreChinas Emergence as a Superpower1552 Words   |  7 Pagesbelonged to the United States. But the 21st century belongs to China, -- Jim Rogers, Hedge fund manager Chinas population is one of the greatest natural resources on the planet. Its citizens are becoming more educated, diligent, aspiring and comprise nearly a quarter of the worlds population. The combination of Chinas massive size and rapid modernization is creating the framework for an emerging superpower. Chinas growing economy is not only gaining international prestige, but its confidenceRead MoreChinas Emergence As A Superpower Essay1586 Words   |  7 Pagesbelonged to the United States. But the 21st century belongs to China, -- Jim Rogers, Hedge fund manager Chinas population is one of the greatest natural resources on the planet. Its citizens are becoming more educated, diligent, aspiring and comprise nearly a quarter of the worlds population. The combination of Chinas massive size and rapid modernization is creating the framework for an emerging superpower. Chinas growing economy is not only gaining international prestige, but its confidenceRead MoreThe Resilient Australian Economy : Australia Essay1609 Words   |  7 PagesThe Resilient Australian Economy Australia has been one of the few developed nations to remain largely unscathed by the global financial crises of 2008 – a crisis, which has left in its wake seemingly intractable problems of unemployment, large government debts, financial fragility and political unrest in Europe, Japan and North America (McAuley 2012). This would be further explored in the essay. Composition The Australian economy faces new challenges like the high exchange rate of Australian

How Domestic Violence Affects Children - 3491 Words

How Domestic Violence Affects Children April Weaver Major: Psychology March 22, 2015 Introduction Domestic violence is defined as the inflicting of physical injury by one family or household member on another (â€Å"Domestic violence – Definition and more from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary,† n.d.). Texas Family Code Sec 71.004 defines family violence as an act by a member of a family or household against another member of the family or household that is intended to result in physical harm, bodily injury, assault, or sexual assault or that is a threat that reasonably places the member in fear of imminent physical harm, bodily injury, assault, or sexual assault, but does not include defensive measures to protect oneself. Nowhere in the definitions does it specify male to female, adult to child, child to elderly or any other kind of specific limitations for what is domestic violence. That being said, one group that does often get overlooked is the witnesses to the violence. Most people consider domestic violence as between two adults in some sort of non-stranger relationship. So, for this paper, that is how we will address the ones who watch it happen and suffer because of seeing it – the children. The rates for hotline calls answered for domestic violence incidents in Texas was in the hundreds of thousands from 2010 – 2012, but the number of children involved in receiving services was less than 20,000 for each of those same years as shown in Figure 1 (â€Å"TexasShow MoreRelatedHow Domestic Violence Affects Children2071 Words   |  9 PagesHow Domestic Violence Affects Children It has been well documented that children exposed to domestic violence suffer many forms of trauma, particularly children who witness violence inflicted by one parent on the other parent. To begin, Domestic Violence is typically not about one incident of actual violence but a sustained pattern of abusive behaviors and attitudes that may escalate over time. Threatening words and gestures become part of a pervasive atmosphere of fear. The intimidation is frequentlyRead MoreHow Does Domestic Violence Affect Children? Essay1736 Words   |  7 PagesBritannica, domestic violence, also known as domestic abuse, refers to any abuse that takes place among people living in the same household (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online). Domestic violence includes, but is not limited to, spousal abuse and child abuse. Fighting, name-calling, destruction of property, harassment, sexual abuse, the misuse of power and exercise of control (intimidation) over the other person’s finances or actions are all classified as domestic violence. ChildrenRead MoreHow Domestic Violence Affects Children As Well As The Mental Health Of Its Victims1744 Words   |  7 Pagesoverview of the research topic. This chapter will provide a historical background on domestic violence, a historical perspective of the services provided and an overview of different forms of domestic violence. The goal of this literature review is to examine the statistical information that is presented as it relates to domestic violence. This literature review will also reveal how domestic violence affects children as well as the mental health of its victims. In addition, this chapter will includeRead MoreDomestic Violence Affects Children s Development1687 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Thesis: Domestic violence can negatively affect children s development. (make more persuasive) Children all around the world witness domestic violence. Whether it s between parents, partners or even the elder. Does the parents, partners, or elder realize the affects that happen to their children? Witnessing domestic violence, children become fearful and anxious. They become this way because they never know when the next event may happen, fearing for themselves, mom or dad, and siblingsRead MoreDomestic Violence research proposal1573 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract The purpose of this study is to see whether or not domestic violence causes a damaging affect on children. The study will included criminal justice students in College and the age range will be between 18 and 23 years old. The method is qualitative and will be an interview. Introduction Domestic violence can be defines as a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. AbuseRead MoreThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children1529 Words   |  7 PagesThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Trudy Root Kaplan University CM107-11 Children are negatively impacted by the surrounding of domestic violence in multiple ways, in which need to be identified. The audience that needs to be aware of domestic abuse’s effects on children is adults that care for children; such as pediatricians, teachers, counselors, and parents. The issue that needs to be addressed is the negative effects on children involved in a domestic violence situation. ManyRead MoreThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children1540 Words   |  7 PagesThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Trudy Root Kaplan University CM107-11 Children are negatively impacted by the surrounding of domestic violence in multiple ways, in which need to be identified. The audience that needs to be aware of domestic abuse’s effects on children is adults that care for children; such as pediatricians, teachers, counselors, and parents. The issue that needs to be addressed is the negative effects on children involved in a domestic violence situation. ManyRead MoreDomestic Violence And Children On Children1642 Words   |  7 PagesDomestic Violence and Children There are many studies that have been done over the past decade that does a comparison of children of domestic violence to those that have not experienced it. We cannot say for sure what number or percentage is affected each day or year. However, it is a widespread national problem that affects children today. Domestic violence has long been a hot topic and statics shows that† every 15 seconds a woman in the United States of America is beaten† (Beller 2015, p. 207)Read MoreThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Essay1183 Words   |  5 Pagesof that individual. Some of these events will affect the individual in a positive way allowing great life opportunities, while other events will unfortunately affect the individual in a negative way which can lead to disorders. Among the various events that can affect a person, one of the most common occurrences that some children witness early on in their lives that deeply affect their long-term mental health is being a witness to domestic violence. Research and observations that were studied revealedRead MoreThe Cycle Of Domestic Violence1264 Words   |  6 PagesOne may wonder why some individuals remain in the cycle of domestic violence even after instances of abuse. Should it not be easy for an individual to leave a partner who is inflicting pain and stress on him or her? Lenore Walker’s (1979) model for the cycle of domestic violence explores the phases of domestic violence, the different types of abuse, and how these various phases contribute to the continuation of the cycle. Domestic violence is often diagnosed by obvious signs of physical abuse; however

Worker Productivity

Questions: When estimating the duration of effort-driven project activities, the resources expected to do the work must be specified. One of the factors that will determine the work duration estimate is worker productivity.A. Define worker productivity (in the context of project work) ?B. Describe at least 3 factors that will affect worker productivity and explain how these factors will influence the estimate of work duration?C. Describe two techniques, related to one or more of the factors described above, that may be used in directing workers or in establishing the work environment that will improve worker productivity? Answers: A. Worker Productivity: The productivity of the worker is defined as the assessment of how efficient a worker is. The productivity could be evaluated in the terms of the output of an employee in any given period of time. The productivity of any employee or the worker is calculated by using the average amount of time taken by the other workers or the employees doing the similar work. The success of any organization is dependent upon the productivity that is given by the workforce and it is an important consideration for the business involved. (Whatls.com, 2015) When one talks about the productivity of the worker or the labor, he is actually talking about the construction industry in which the cost and the quantity of the labor hours is involved for performing the task of construction. But it is really important to know that the measure of productivity of the labor is the measure of the overall effectiveness of the of any system that is utilizing the labor, equipment and the capital in order to convert the efforts of the labor into the useful output and is not a measure of the capabilities of the labor alone. In order to illustrate this, when the organization purchases any new equipment, then the number of hours of the labor will get reduced and the labor productivity will get increased. The main effectiveness of the operating system is in the process of utilizing the about, equipment and capital so as to convert the efforts of the labor into something that is useful. This is not the capability of labor all by itself. (pmbook.ce.cmu.edu., 2015) B. Factors that will affect worker productivity and explain how these factors will influence the estimate of work duration: The workers and the labor that is working on the site of the job have the characteristics that are either oriented. There are working conditions and then there are non-productive activities. The labor characteristics includes the following: The age, skill and the experience that is possessed by the workforce. The leadership and the motivation of the workforce involved. The project work includes the following stated factors: Size of the job and the complexity involved in it The accessibility to the job site The availability of the labor The utilization of the equipment The contractual agreements involved The local climate The local cultural characteristics, particularly in the foreign operations. The non-productive activities are associated with the project may or may not be paid by the owner but they take up the resources of the labor that could otherwise be directed to the project. The non-productive activities includes the following stated factors: The indirect labor that is required to maintain the progress of the project The rework for correcting the unsatisfactory work The stoppage of the work of the temporary staff due to the inclement weather or the shortage of the material Time off for the union activities Absentee time including the starting the work late or quitting the work early Non-working holidays strikes The following are other factors that contribute to the labor productivity: Time: the studies that have been conducted in the past have shown that the decrease in the productivity when the person or the labor or the worker is working overtime. The reasons for the same have been told as fatigue, increased absenteeism, decrease in the morale, reduction in the effectiveness of the supervision, poor workmanship. This further results in higher number of reworks, increase in the number of the accidents. When the person is working overtime, this would initially result in the increase in the output but later on, will reduce the productivity. The time that is used by the labor on the productive activities are about 30% of the total amount of time that is available. Schedule compression: when there have been early delays in the project, then there is a compression of the overall time frame for the later activity and they are the ones that compensate for the interruptions and to complete the task that has been assigned on the schedule. Type of the project: when any task has been assigned to the member, each of the member must carry out his task efficiently without letting his work to be affected by the work or the task of the other crew members. When the labor is allocate done task within a given set of time frame, then the interference with the other will occur. Further, when there are many trades that have been assigned some work in the same area, then the clashes are bound to take place. And when there are a number of tasks that have been assigned to the workers, then they will definitely interfere in each others work. Safety: the number of accidents that takes place on the site has a bearing on the labor productivity. Since, when the accidents occur, the work is totally stopped for a number of days or for weeks. When a fellow worker is injured and is hospitalized, the work of the crew gets reduced and this leads to the decrease in the productivity. Equipment: Improper working conditions: when the employer does not provide adequate and proper working conditions, then the productivity of the labor get further reduced. For example, when there is inadequate lighting, then the workers will not be able to work properly and their efficiency will come down and so would their productivity. Attitudes of the managers: the skills and the attitudes of the managers have an important bearing on the managers. In many of the organizations, the productivity of the labor is low since they have bene handed the latest technology that they have no knowledge as to how to use. The productivity of the labor is low because the management is indifferent and inefficient. The managers that are experienced and are committed are able to obtain many surprising results from the people of the average mind set. Manpower group: the recent studies have shown that if the experience of the labor is negative, then the same negatively affects the productivity of the labor and hence, proves that in order to achieve the good productivity of the labor, they play a very significant role. Motivation: the absence of motivation is another reason s to why the labor productivity decreases. (Library.ndsu.edu, 2015) (NBRI, 2015) C. Two techniques, related to one or more of the factors described above, that may be used in directing workers or in establishing the work environment that will improve worker productivity: Motivation: Motivation is one of the key factors in improving and exceeding the performance of the employee. It need not always be monetary. Some of the factors that contribute to motivation are as follows: The support from the management and an effective delegation of the work. Certificate of appreciation More and more responsibilities and the team management The training for an improved performance and the profile improvement Challenging opportunities and the projects A ear that listens to everything Providing an effective feedback Providing positive team environments Lack of the bias form the managers The manager with the head on his or her shoulders and an effective leadership. (Smarthr, 2015) Motivation is something that increases the willingness of the workers to work and increases the effectiveness in the organization. It helps in the following: Best utilization of the resources Reduction in the number of labor problems Cooperation Increase in the production and the product (Organization, 2015) Respecting the employees: The workers and the employees must be respected for the work that they do and also as the individuals. When the workers and the employees feel that they are genuinely being respected, then they will try to go to an extra mile in order to help the company to succeed. (Lipman, 2013) Many a times, we take the things for granted when we actually should not. People keep on saying that we must always look at the glass half full but the study has proved otherwise. The study states that the people who seen the glass as half full do not do better than the people who sees it as empty. The same thing applies to the life and to the business. When the employees and the workers are happy, they are more productive. When they are respected and tend to enjoy the status quo. When the employees are happy, they will take new challenges and try to prove themselves. (Businessweek.com, 2015)

African Masks Essay Example For Students

African Masks Essay CONTENTS 1. FIGURE LIST3 2. INTRODUCTION4 2. 1 Historical background and information 4 3. CONTEXT OF CEREMONIAL AFRICAN MASKING AND THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS THEROF 6 3. 1 The Makishi Masquerades among the Chokwe and related people6 3. 2 Pwo Mask7 3. 3 The Ngidi and Makanda initiation Rites8 3. 4 Holo Mask9 3. 5 The Bambara tribe of Mali and the Chi Wara antelope Mask9 4. CONCLUSION11 5. BIBLIOGROPHY12 1. FIGURE LIST FigurePage Figure 1:Unknown Artist, Pwo Mask, Wood Carving, patina and plant material, 9. † x 10† x 10†, Private Collection, (Bastin, 1982:91). 7 Figure 2:Unknown Artist, Chi Wara antelope Mask, Wood Carving, plant material, horns, antelope skin, 9. 8† x 11† x 23. 5†, Private Collection, (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:88). 9 Figure 3:Unknown Artist, Chi Wara antelope Mask, Wood Carving, plant material, horns, antelope skin, 9. 8† x 11† x 10. 5†, Private Collection, (Chi Wara antelope mask. S. a. ). 10 2. INTRODUCTION It has been said that art in Africa is the visible expression of the invisible. We will write a custom essay on African Masks specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now With that in mind I will discuss and explain, with reference to the statement, the complex social role of the different types of masks used in traditional African societies. I will also explain the religious and political roles of these masks in the community. Through gathering information from books and electronic sources I will explain the context of ceremonial African masking and the basic characteristics thereof. I will do research on specific masks, their style and the purpose of their existence within their community. 2. 1 Historical background and information Masks are time and again depicted as the classic art form of Africa. If you look at the history of African masks, you will find that African masks can be traced back to long before the Palaeolithic times. African masks are being greatly hunted down by art lovers and collectors, as they are some of the most supreme art pieces in the art world today. The masks as it is normally seen in a western perspective, however, as a museum piece in a glass display case or hanging on a wall, is a single element artificially isolated from the context for which it was intended. In these masks, originally created for different masking ceremonies of different tribes you will find different types of materials such as leather, metal, fabric, organic materials and various types of wood. One example of this is the Chi Wara antelope mask of the Bambara culture of Mali, It is used in rituals associated with planting and harvesting. During celebrations like this, initiation ceremonies, war preparation and troubled times you can find a chosen person or an initiated dancer wearing these masks. The headpiece itself can have a range of greatly different significances depending on the precise local understanding of the spiritual agency involved in its performance. African masquerades are a highly complex and diverse range of cultural practices, few of which correspond closely to ideas associated with mask wearing in the West (African masks history and meaning, S. a. ; African art and architecture, 2001). Latest development and understanding of aesthetic principles, religious and ceremonial values, have brought about a grater insight into the ideas and moral values that African artists express in their art. Art is the expression or the application of creative skill and imagination, especially through a visual medium such as painting or sculpture. In the Oxford dictionary (2002:607) you will find the meaning of the word invisible to be something unable to be seen, either by nature or because of concealed. If you relate that in contents to the statement that African art is the visible expression of the invisible, you can say that African art, especially the making of masks in Africa, is not created for the sake of art, but that the creation of these special handcrafted objects go beyond the formal qualities that meets the eye. In this essay I am going to look at the Makishi Masquerades and the Transmission of knowledge among the Chokwe and related people together with the Pwo mask, the Bambara tribe of Mali and the Chi Wara antelope mask, and also at the role that the Holo mask plays in the Ngidi and Makanda initiation rites (African masks history and meaning, S. a. ; African art and architecture, 2001). 3. CONTEXT OF CEREMONIAL AFRICAN MASKING AND THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS THEREOF 3. 1 The Makishi Masquerades among the Chokwe and related people The Chokwe are famous for art items produced to celebrate and legalize the royal court. The art objects can include elaborately carved stools and chairs used as thrones. Most of the sculptures are portraits, which represent the royal ancestry. Staffs, sceptres, and spears are among other implements sculpted to celebrate the court. Chokwe origin can perhaps be traced to the Mbuti and Pygmies. Between 1600 and 1850 they were under extensive influence from the Lunda states and were centrally located in Angola. In the second half of the 19th century though, substantial improvement of the trade routes between the Chokwe homelands and the Angolan coast led to increased trade of ivory and rubber. .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea , .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .postImageUrl , .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea , .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea:hover , .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea:visited , .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea:active { border:0!important; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea:active , .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uabdbf81a37f8ca6d17d9b12e1a0b8cea:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Disability act in affect EssayWealth acquired from this allowed the Chokwe kingdom to develop, eventually overtaking the Lunda states that had held sway over them for so long. Their success was short-lived, however, the effects of overexpansion, disease, and colonialism resulted in the fragmentation of Chokwe power (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:67). The Chokwe related people of Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo engage their ancestors to endow them with spiritual or supernatural support for various human activities. If you look at male initiation in context, ancestral spirits may assume the form of masks to dramatize cosmological principles and assist in transmitting knowledge through generations. The Chokwe people perform over one hundred types of masked masquerades called the Makishi. Makishi represents the spirits of the deceased individuals that return to the world of the living to guide, assist and protect the members of the community (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:67). Makishi often serve to authorize and validate social and political institutions, which are generally perceived as the domain of women. The Makishi most often preformed in combination with the mukanda initiation of girls, but they may also appear during annual confirmatory ceremonies. Makishi performances bring to mind the cosmological precepts of the Chokwe and related people. Principles of social and political organisation are presented publically through mukanda masquerades. In these masquerades you will find male and female characters. One of the most important Makishi characters that you will find during initiation ceremonies represents the ideal woman that is called Pwo or Pwevo. The short steps characterize Pwo dances and sensuous hip movements, which are emphasized by a bustle, tied around the hips, consisting of a bundle of cloth, strings and rattling objects. Pwo perform sexual behaviours by pretending to have intercourse with a mortar or with a figure that she may rapidly form from earth in the preformed space. These dances are a type of sexual education, presented openly to stress the fertility of this female ancestor. To highlight her supernatural attributes as an ancestral, Pwo sometimes dances on stilts or performs acrobatically skits. In this masquerades a Pwo performer will wear the Pwo mask while holding a flywhisk and a rattle made form of tin can. The Pwo mask dancer dances with the women who clap and sings to musically accompany the performer. In the following paragraph I will explain the style and elements of the Pwo mask (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:67-68). 3. 2 Pwo Mask Figure 1: Unknown Artist, Pwo Mask, Wood Carving, patina and plant material, 9. 5† x 10† x 10†, Private Collection, (Bastin, 1982:91). The Pwo mask is a semi stylized wooden facemask with eyes that are usually elliptical in shape. The facemask is the most common mask found in Africa. The mask covers the face and has holes on the side. The eyes are half-closed and swollen eyelids are prolonged down to the centre of the concave eye-sockets. Sometimes the eyes are spherical and have horizontal slits. Occasionally the forehead has a carved headband. The ears are curved or else semi-circular with the tragus shown. The traditional scarification is usually engraved, cut away, incrusted or carved in relief. The Mask measures 9. 5 inches tall x 10 wide x 10 deep and the use of wood with cam wood powder and plant fibre for hair can be seen in the Pwo Mask (Figure 1). The mask has well defined and expressive facial features as well as a wonderful worm patina to the wood. The facial scarification below the eyes also represents tears. This mask represents Chokwe ideals of feminine beauty. The idealized features, subtle contours and refined lines formally convey the elegance of a celebrated female ancestor. The mask was not created by a artist, as it has no aesthetic value to the tribe as it is used for ceremonies and worship, but one can say that the mask was certainly created by a unknown Chokwe master craftsman (Bastin, 1982:90). 3. 3 The Ngidi and Makanda initiation rites The Holo of the democratic Republic of the Congo live in the Kizamba area. They occupy the region between the Suka-Mbundu Falls on the Kwango River. The Holo society is composed of a number of independent clans. One of the secrete rites of passage of the Holo tribe is that Holo women undergo a ritual initiation called Ngidi, which parallels Mukanda. Mukanda is the initiation ceremony of young boys. Ngidi brings together women of all ages, not only those who are pubescent. Apart from preparing young men and women for adult life, initiation institutes among the Holo operate as forces of social unity. (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:88). The initiation ceremony of the boys of the Holo tribe is called the Mukanda. The festivities that go with the Mukanda initiation ceremonies, like communal rejoicing and a great ritual dance, are held on the eve of the circumcision. The community dances until dawn. A Holo masked is carved as a helmet to fit securely over a performers head. On the occasion of this rite of passage for the boys of the Holo tribe, the initiates’ farewell feast, they are the centre of community. The Holo mask plays a huge role in the initiation of the boys. (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:67). 3. 4 Holo Mask The Holo mask seen in figure 2 is a wood carved helmet mask. A helmet mask is carved from one single piece of wood and is hollow to cover the whole face. It has carved out openings for the eyes, mouth and nose. .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f , .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .postImageUrl , .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f , .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f:hover , .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f:visited , .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f:active { border:0!important; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f:active , .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua613c28011a40c608baf79abfd7b956f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Gospel of Mark Argumentative EssayA dancer puts on this mask before dancing at the initiation ceremonies of the Holo tribe. His whole body is covered with natural oil to serve as protection against evil spirits. (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:67). Figure 2: Unknown Artist, Chi Wara antelope Mask, Wood Carving, plant material, horns, antelope skin, 9. 8† x 11† x 23. 5†, Private Collection, (Van Wyk, Garratt Stepan, 1998:88). 3. 5 The Bambara tribe of Mali and the Chi Wara antelope Mask One of the largest ethnic and most dominant groups found mostly in the country of Mali is the Bambara culture. The Bambara live in the middle valley of the Niger River. The majority of the people of this culture are farmers. The most important crop for them is millet, but sorghum and groundnuts are also of high value to them as this is produced in high quantities. Maize, cassava, tobacco, and numerous other vegetables are grown in private gardens as well. As agriculture is so important to the people of the Bambara tribe, one of the religious traditions is to worship the Chi Wara in rituals associated with planting and harvesting. The Chi Wara was the Bambarian inventor of agriculture. Even though most Bambara declare to be Muslim, many people still follow their conventional beliefs in ancestor worship. The Bambara trust that the ancestral spirits may take on the forms of animals or even vegetables. In extraordinary ceremonies, the spirits are worshipped and presented with offerings of flour and water while the people taking part in this ceremony honours the Chi Wara through dancing while wearing the Chi Wara antelope mask as seen in Figure 3. pic] Figure 3: Unknown Artist, Chi Wara antelope Mask, Wood Carving, plant material, horns, antelope skin, 9. 8† x 11† x 10. 5†, Private Collection (Chi Wara antelope mask. S. a. ). The Chi Wara antelope mask is a semi- stylistic zoomorphic headdress, representing a fusion of antelope and anteater, and is danced in pairs to also honour champion farmers in the Bambara tribe. The headdress is carved out of wood and covered with antelope skin. The Chi Wara antelope mask consists of representations of animal heads. The oldest member of a family act as the negotiator between the living and the dead (Bambara, S. a. ). 4. CONCLUSION In Africa, art is not created for the sake of art. If you look at the different roles that art play in the different communities in Africa, you will find that the purpose of the art, especially the masks in Africa is created not by known artists, but by craftsmen. Also the style of their masks is not realistic but also not abstract. From an African point of view, works of art should be neither too rational nor conceptual. This is because of the lack of aesthetic value from the masks to them. In the above research you find that art is not for the beauty of art but created for the use of ancestral worship. If you look at the reason for the initial creation of African art, you will find that the art was created for religious, political and social events of communities and tribes. Thus one can state that African art is the visible expression of the invisible as were visible reveres to the creative mask, and were invisible reveres to the spiritual and ancestral worship of the African people. . BIBLIOGROPHY African art and architecture. 2001. In: Microsoft Encarta encyclopaedia (Deluxe) 2001 . African masks history and meaning. S. a. . Available from: http://www. rebirth. co. za/African masks history and meaning. htm . Bambara. S. a. . Available from: http://www. africaguide. com/culture/tribes/bambara. htm . BASTIN, M. 1982. La sculpture Tshokwe. France: Main et Francoise Chaffin. Chi Wara antelope mask. S . a. . Available from: http://www. controverscial. om/Antelo10. gif . South African Concise Oxford Dictionary. 2002. Southern Africa: Oxford University Press. VAN WYK, G. , GARRATT, K. , STEPAN, P. 1998. Chokwe, art and initiation among Chokwe and related peoples. New York: Prestel-Verlag, Munich. WordWeb. 2004. Available from: http://wordweb. info/ . Palaeolithic: The second part of the Stone Age beginning about 750,00 to 500,000 years BC and lasting until the end of the last ice age about 8,500 years B. C (WordWeb, 2004) Cosmological: Pertaining to the branch of astronomy dealing with the origin and history and structure and dynamics of the universe (WordWeb, 2004). Masquerade: A party of guests wearing costumes and masks (WordWeb, 2004). Zoomorphic: The attribution of animal forms or qualities to a god (WordWeb, 2004). African Masks Tshwane University of Technology Department of Fine and Applied Arts Art Theory 2 Assignment 1 Johann Claassens 209021536 2010